How Do Mattresses Get Bed Bugs? Signs, Prevention, and Control Methods Explained 2025

Bed bugs can enter mattresses through infested items such as used furniture, luggage, and clothing. They like to hide in seams and crevices. Bed bugs easily move between rooms in multi-unit buildings. Regular cleaning and using mattress encasements can help prevent infestations.

Signs that indicate a mattress has bed bugs include small reddish-brown spots on the fabric, shedding exoskeletons, and the presence of live bugs near seams or crevices. It is important to inspect your mattress regularly for these signs to catch an infestation early.

Prevention methods can help protect mattresses from bed bugs. Using mattress encasements can create a barrier and keep these pests out. Regular vacuuming and cleaning can also deter bed bugs from taking up residence. Maintaining cleanliness in the home further minimizes the risk of infestation.

Control methods for existing problems involve careful, targeted approaches. This may include heat treatment, insecticides, or professional pest control services. Properly addressing the issue ensures that the mattress can be utilized safely.

Understanding how mattresses get bed bugs and recognizing their signs is essential for effective prevention and control. The next section will explore detailed methods for eradicating bed bugs from your living space.

Table of Contents

What Are Bed Bugs and How Do They Infest Mattresses?

Bed bugs are small, wingless insects that feed on human blood. They infest mattresses by hiding in seams and crevices, emerging at night to feed.

Important points about bed bugs and their infestation of mattresses include:
1. Life cycle
2. Feeding habits
3. Signs of infestation
4. Methods of prevention
5. Control and extermination options

Understanding these points is crucial for effective management.

Life Cycle: The life cycle of bed bugs includes several stages: egg, nymph, and adult. A single female can lay up to 500 eggs in her lifetime, ensuring rapid population growth. Eggs are usually found in dark, hidden areas and can hatch within a week under ideal conditions.
Feeding Habits: Bed bugs primarily feed on blood, usually from humans. They usually bite at night when the host is asleep. Their bite can cause itchiness and discomfort. Unlike other pests, bed bugs can survive without food for several months, complicating eradication efforts.
Signs of Infestation: Common signs of bed bug infestations include dark stains on mattresses from excrement, shed skins, and small blood spots. Unexplained bites on the skin, often in clusters, can also signal a bed bug presence.
Methods of Prevention: Prevention methods include regularly cleaning bedding, sealing cracks and crevices, and using protective mattress covers. Reducing clutter in the bedroom also helps limit hiding spots for bed bugs.
Control and Extermination Options: Control options include heat treatment, chemical pesticides, and professional extermination services. A multi-faceted approach typically yields the best results, given bed bugs’ resilience.

Addressing these factors can help individuals manage and prevent bed bug infestations effectively.

What Signs Indicate Bed Bugs Are Present in Your Mattress?

The presence of bed bugs in a mattress can be indicated by several signs. These include bites on the skin, blood stains on sheets, dark spots of bed bug excrement, and a musty odor.

Skin Bites
Blood Stains
Dark Spots (Excrement)
Musty Odor
Visible Bed Bugs
Shed Exoskeletons
Live or Dead Bed Bugs

Recognizing these signs is crucial for addressing a potential infestation effectively and promptly.

Skin Bites: Skin bites indicate that bed bugs are present when they leave red, itchy marks on the skin. According to the American Academy of Dermatology, these bites often appear in clusters or lines. Many individuals experience allergic reactions to bed bug bites, leading to swelling and discomfort.
Blood Stains: Blood stains on your sheets or mattress signify that bed bugs have been feeding. The stains often appear reddish-brown and result from either crushed bugs or individuals that have scratched their bites during sleep. Studies show that spotting these stains is one of the earliest signs of an infestation.
Dark Spots (Excrement): Dark spots on your mattress or sheets are signs of bed bug excrement. These spots are identified as small, dark specks and can often be found along seams and edges. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) notes that this excrement can also leave a characteristic stain, further indicating an infestation.
Musty Odor: A musty odor can indicate a bed bug presence. This smell is often described as smelling like an overripe berry, resulting from pheromones released by the bugs. The University of Kentucky entomology department emphasizes that a strong odor often indicates a higher level of infestations.
Visible Bed Bugs: Spotting live bed bugs is a direct indication of an infestation. Adult bed bugs are roughly the size of an apple seed and can be found hiding in the seams and folds of the mattress. A single female bed bug can lay up to five eggs daily, leading to rapid population growth.
Shed Exoskeletons: Shed exoskeletons are another telling sign. As bed bugs mature, they molt several times, leaving behind casings. Finding these exoskeletons can help identify the level of infestation.
Live or Dead Bed Bugs: Finding dead bed bugs provides clear evidence of an infestation. Live bugs are typically found in the mattress seams, under the sleeper’s headboard, or in nearby furniture. In a study published by the Environmental Health Perspectives, researchers reported that bed bugs can hide up to 20 feet away from their feeding source, making thorough inspections essential.

Recognizing these signs can help you take timely action against bed bugs in your mattress.

How Can You Recognize Bed Bug Bites on Your Skin?

Bed bug bites can be recognized by their characteristic appearance and patterns on the skin, which usually appear as red, itchy welts.

The key points to identifying bed bug bites include the following:

Bite Pattern: Bed bug bites often cluster or appear in a line. This occurs because bed bugs tend to bite multiple times in one area while feeding. The common pattern resembles a “breakfast-lunch-dinner” arrangement, with three bites close together.
Appearance: Bed bug bites usually appear as small, raised red welts on the skin. They may become inflamed and can sometimes blister. According to a study by Doggett et al. (2004) in the Journal of Medical Entomology, these bites can also vary in size, depending on individual reactions to the bite.
Itchiness: The bites are often intensely itchy due to the body’s allergic reaction to bed bug saliva. Scratching the bitten area can lead to secondary infections if not managed properly.
Site of Bites: Bites commonly occur on exposed areas of skin such as the arms, neck, and face, especially while sleeping. Bed bugs feed at night and prefer to bite when their host is still.
Timing: The bites typically appear a few hours after the feeding. A delay of up to a couple of days may occur before the welts are visible, making it challenging for individuals to connect the bites to bed bugs.

Recognizing these signs is essential for effective identification and treatment. Early detection can help prevent further infestations and mitigate the risk of complications from bites.

What Visual Clues Point to Bed Bugs on Your Mattress?

Visual clues that indicate the presence of bed bugs on your mattress include observable signs such as dark spots, eggs, live insects, and shedding skin.

Dark spots (fecal stains)
Egg casings
Live insects
Shed exoskeletons
Blood stains
Unpleasant odor (musty smell)

Recognizing these visual clues is crucial for effective pest control. This awareness allows homeowners to address the issue before it worsens.

Dark Spots (Fecal Stains):
Dark spots on your mattress represent fecal stains from bed bugs. Bed bugs excrete digested blood, which appears as tiny dark spots. According to a study by the University of Kentucky, these stains can often be found on seams, along edges, or near hiding spots of the mattress. An accumulation of these stains may indicate a higher level of infestation.
Egg Casings:
Egg casings, also known as oothecae, are small, translucent, and approximately 1mm in size. Bed bugs lay eggs that are typically secured in clusters in hidden areas. The presence of egg casings suggests an active breeding population. The National Pest Management Association mentions that each female bed bug can lay up to 5 eggs per day, leading to rapid population growth.
Live Insects:
Seeing live bed bugs crawling on the mattress is a clear sign of an infestation. Adult bed bugs are approximately 5 to 7mm long and are reddish-brown in color. They are mostly active at night when they feed on human blood. A visual identification of live bed bugs directly indicates a need for immediate action.
Shed Exoskeletons:
Shed exoskeletons are remnants left by bed bugs after they molt. Bed bugs shed their exoskeletons five times before reaching maturity. These tiny, flexible brown shells can often be found in hiding spots or along seams. This shedding process highlights the ongoing presence of bed bugs within the home.
Blood Stains:
Small blood stains on sheets or mattresses can indicate that a bed bug has been crushed after feeding. These stains can be bright red or rust-colored. Their presence suggests that bed bugs have been feeding on humans at night and potentially multiplying in the vicinity.
Unpleasant Odor (Musty Smell):
A musty odor emanating from an infested area can hint at a significant bed bug presence. This smell is produced by the scent glands of bed bugs. According to pest control experts, this odor becomes more pronounced in the case of larger infestations and can serve as an additional warning sign.

Being aware of these indications empowers individuals to take necessary measures for pest control. Early detection is key to effectively managing and eliminating a bed bug infestation.

How Do Mattresses Become Infested with Bed Bugs?

Mattresses become infested with bed bugs primarily through their ability to hitch rides on luggage, clothing, furniture, and other items carried into homes. These pests thrive in places where humans sleep, making mattresses an ideal target.

Bed bugs can enter homes in several ways:

Hitchhiking: Bed bugs are adept at latching onto belongings. They can travel via luggage from hotels or other establishments that may have an infestation.
Secondhand furniture: Used mattresses or furniture can carry hidden bed bugs. Inspecting and cleaning these items before bringing them home is crucial.
Close proximity to infested areas: Living in apartments or shared housing increases the risk of bed bugs spreading through walls or shared spaces.
Unintentional transport: Individuals might unknowingly carry bed bugs home on clothing after visiting a heavily infested location.
Poor sanitation: Cluttered environments provide ample hiding spots for bed bugs, making it harder to detect and eliminate them.

A study published in the Journal of Economic Entomology (Johnson, 2018) highlighted that bed bugs can survive long periods without feeding, allowing them to endure transportation from infested areas to new locations. Due to these survival skills, it is vital to remain vigilant against bed bugs, especially when traveling or acquiring secondhand items.

What Common Practices Contribute to Bed Bug Infestations in Mattresses?

Common practices that contribute to bed bug infestations in mattresses include inadequate cleaning and maintenance, improper storage of infested items, and the use of second-hand furniture.

Inadequate cleaning and maintenance
Improper storage of infested items
Use of second-hand furniture
Travel and transportation habits
Lack of awareness about bed bug signs

These practices highlight various ways in which bed bug infestations can occur, prompting a deeper examination of each factor.

Inadequate Cleaning and Maintenance: Inadequate cleaning and maintenance can lead to bed bug infestations. Neglecting regular cleaning, such as vacuuming and washing bedding, allows bed bugs to thrive in mattresses and surrounding areas. A study by the University of Kentucky (2008) found that regular cleaning significantly reduces bed bug populations. Mattresses with untreated stains and odors can be more attractive to pests.
Improper Storage of Infested Items: Improper storage of infested items frequently promotes bed bug infestations. Items such as luggage, clothing, or furniture that have been in contact with bed bug-infested environments can unknowingly introduce bed bugs into a clean space. Research from the American Hotel and Lodging Educational Institute (2010) indicates that travelers often bring bed bugs home unwittingly.
Use of Second-Hand Furniture: The use of second-hand furniture can lead to bed bug problems. This furniture may harbor bed bugs from previous owners. A survey by the National Pest Management Association (2018) noted that more than half of pest professionals reported treating homes for bed bugs acquired from used furniture. Ensuring thorough inspections before bringing in used items can mitigate this risk.
Travel and Transportation Habits: Travel and transportation habits also contribute to bed bug infestations. Frequent travel, especially to hotels known for pest problems, increases the likelihood of bringing bed bugs home. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2019) advises travelers to inspect hotel rooms for signs of bed bugs, such as stains on sheets or mattress seams, to prevent infestations.
Lack of Awareness About Bed Bug Signs: A lack of awareness about bed bug signs can enhance susceptibility to infestations. Many people are not familiar with the characteristics and signs of bed bugs, making it easier for these pests to take hold unnoticed. An ongoing study by the Entomological Society of America (2021) suggests that increasing awareness and education is vital in prevention efforts.

Understanding these common practices can help individuals take proactive measures to prevent bed bug infestations in mattresses.

What Preventative Measures Can You Take to Protect Your Mattress from Bed Bugs?

To protect your mattress from bed bugs, implement a combination of preventive measures.

Here are the main preventative measures you can take:
1. Use a bed bug-proof mattress encasement.
2. Regularly vacuum your mattress and surrounding areas.
3. Keep your bedroom clutter-free.
4. Inspect second-hand furniture carefully.
5. Wash bedding frequently in hot water.
6. Reduce hiding spots by using furniture risers.
7. Contact a pest control professional if needed.

These measures help safeguard your mattress, but it is also important to understand their effectiveness and limitations.

Bed Bug-Proof Mattress Encasement: A bed bug-proof mattress encasement is designed to trap bed bugs inside and prevent them from entering or exiting. According to a study by the American Society for Microbiology, encasements can reduce the likelihood of bed bug infestations significantly. Choose encasements labeled as “bed bug-proof,” which typically have a zipper and a high thread count.
Regularly Vacuum Your Mattress: Regularly vacuuming your mattress helps to remove dust mites, dead skin, and potential bed bugs. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend using a vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter, as it captures small particles effectively. Pay attention to seams and crevices when vacuuming.
Keep Your Bedroom Clutter-Free: A clutter-free bedroom minimizes hiding spots for bed bugs. Bed bugs thrive in dark, secluded areas. Keeping clothes off the floor and reducing unnecessary items around the bed denies bed bugs places to hide. The National Pest Management Association emphasizes that decluttering is a vital strategy in prevention.
Inspect Second-Hand Furniture Carefully: When acquiring second-hand furniture, inspect it thoroughly for signs of bed bugs, such as shed skins or black fecal spots. The University of Kentucky Entomology Department warns that untreated second-hand furniture can introduce bed bugs into your home. Even minor signs of infestation should be treated with caution.
Wash Bedding Frequently in Hot Water: Washing bedding weekly in hot water (at least 120°F) kills bed bugs and their eggs. According to the EPA, frequent washing reduces the risk of infestations. It is also advisable to dry bedding on high heat for at least 30 minutes to ensure elimination.
Reduce Hiding Spots by Using Furniture Risers: Using furniture risers elevates beds and other furniture, making it harder for bed bugs to climb. A 2019 study published in the Journal of Economic Entomology highlighted that elevated furniture allows for easier detection and reduction in infestation severity.
Contact a Pest Control Professional if Needed: If you suspect an infestation, contacting a pest control professional is essential. They have access to specialized treatments that are more effective than home remedies. The National Pest Management Association suggests hiring certified professionals who understand bed bug biology and behavior for effective removal.

By implementing these measures, you can significantly decrease the risk of bed bugs affecting your mattress and overall sleeping environment.

How Effective Are Mattress Encasements in Preventing Bed Bugs?

Mattress encasements are effective in preventing bed bugs. These protective covers completely encase the mattress and box spring. They help by trapping existing bed bugs inside while preventing new ones from entering. The encasements create a barrier that bed bugs cannot penetrate.

To understand their effectiveness, consider the following components:

Material: Quality mattress encasements use tightly woven fabrics. This material successfully blocks bed bugs.
Design: Encasements have sealed zippers. This prevents bed bugs from escaping or entering.
Maintenance: Regularly washing the encasements enhances protection. Clean encasements help eliminate any potential bed bug remnants.

The logical sequence starts from the material choice that enhances durability. Next, the design ensures maximum barrier protection. Finally, proper maintenance increases longevity and effectiveness.

In summary, mattress encasements provide a reliable defense against bed bugs when chosen and maintained correctly. They significantly reduce the chances of infestations and help control existing problems.

What Cleaning Strategies Can Help Keep Your Mattress Bed Bug-Free?

To keep your mattress bed bug-free, implement a combination of proactive cleaning strategies and preventative measures.

Regular vacuuming
Washing bedding in hot water
Using mattress encasements
Cleaning surrounding areas
Eliminating clutter
Treating with appropriate insecticides

These cleaning strategies not only help reduce the presence of bed bugs but also enhance overall mattress hygiene. While many experts agree on these methods, some individuals argue that certain treatments may be excessive or ineffective. Understanding diverse opinions on the efficacy of various approaches is key to maintaining a bed bug-free mattress environment.

Regular Vacuuming:
Regular vacuuming effectively removes bed bugs and their eggs from the mattress. Focus on seams, edges, and surrounding areas. According to the National Pest Management Association (NPMA), vacuuming can reduce bed bug populations significantly. However, it’s essential to dispose of the vacuum bag immediately to prevent bed bugs from escaping back into your home.
Washing Bedding in Hot Water:
Washing all bedding and linens in hot water kills bed bugs and allergens. The EPA recommends using water at a minimum temperature of 120°F (49°C) for an effective cleanse. This treatment should be combined with regular washing cycles to maintain a bed bug-free environment.
Using Mattress Encasements:
Using a mattress encasement creates a protective barrier that is tightly sealed around the mattress. This barrier prevents bed bugs from entering or escaping. A study at the University of Kentucky found that using encasements effectively reduces bed bug infestations in mattresses.
Cleaning Surrounding Areas:
Cleaning surrounding areas, such as bed frames and nightstands, is essential for a comprehensive approach. Bed bugs can hide in cracks and crevices. The NPMA suggests thorough inspections and cleaning of these areas to minimize infestation risks.
Eliminating Clutter:
Eliminating clutter around the mattress reduces hiding spots for bed bugs. A tidy environment makes cleaning easier and limits potential breeding grounds. This strategy aligns with advice from pest control experts who emphasize maintaining an organized space.
Treating with Appropriate Insecticides:
Using insecticides specifically designed for bed bugs can be an effective part of a control plan. The EPA provides guidelines for selecting safe and effective products. However, reliance on insecticides alone may not suffice; it should be combined with other prevention strategies for greater efficacy.

By applying these cleaning strategies consistently, you can significantly reduce the risk of bed bug infestations on your mattress.

What Control Methods Are Available If Bed Bugs Are Found in Your Mattress?

If bed bugs are found in your mattress, several control methods are available to effectively manage and eliminate them.

Heat Treatment
Chemical Insecticides
Vacuuming and Steam Cleaning
Encapsulation
Professional Pest Extermination
Preventive Measures

To ensure comprehensive control of bed bugs, it is important to understand each method and its implications.

Heat Treatment: Heat treatment entails raising the temperature of an affected area to a level that kills bed bugs in all life stages. This method usually requires temperatures above 120°F (49°C) for a sustained period. Studies, including one by Singh et al. (2014), indicate that heat treatment can effectively eliminate bed bugs without the use of chemicals. This method is also environmentally friendly and leaves no chemical residue.
Chemical Insecticides: Chemical insecticides are specialized products designed to kill bed bugs on contact or through residual activity. Common active ingredients include pyrethroids and neonicotinoids. While insecticides can be effective, they must be used carefully due to resistance issues, as noted by a study from the University of Kentucky in 2017. Users should follow all safety instructions to minimize health risks.
Vacuuming and Steam Cleaning: Vacuuming helps remove bed bugs, their eggs, and waste products from surfaces. Steam cleaning uses high-temperature steam to kill bed bugs on contact. According to the CDC, vacuuming combined with steam cleaning can reduce bed bug populations significantly. This method is effective for immediate removal but may require repeated applications.
Encapsulation: Encapsulation involves sealing the mattress and box spring in protective covers. These covers prevent bed bugs from entering or escaping. They are a part of a long-term management strategy because they also protect from future infestations. A study published by the National Pest Management Association in 2015 indicates that this method can be particularly effective when used with other control strategies.
Professional Pest Extermination: Engaging professional pest control services is often recommended for severe infestations. These experts have access to a wider range of tools and treatments, including heat treatments and advanced insecticides. A report from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) highlights that professionals can often achieve faster results due to their experience and equipment.
Preventive Measures: Preventive measures include regular inspections, using mattress and pillow covers, and being cautious with secondhand items. According to the National Pest Management Association, travelers should inspect hotel rooms for bed bugs to avoid bringing them home. This proactive approach can help prevent infestations before they start.

By understanding and employing these various control methods, you can effectively manage and eliminate bed bug infestations in your mattress and surrounding areas.

How Can Professional Pest Control Services Help Eliminate Bed Bugs?

Professional pest control services can effectively eliminate bed bugs through specialized treatments, expert knowledge, and follow-up assessments, ensuring a comprehensive solution to infestation.

Specialized treatments: Pest control services employ targeted methods to tackle bed bug infestations. They often use heat treatment, which raises the temperature of infested areas to a level that kills all life stages of bed bugs. According to a study by the University of Kentucky (Miller et al., 2016), heat treatment can achieve a temperature of 120°F, effectively exterminating bed bugs and their eggs.

Expert knowledge: Trained pest control professionals understand bed bug behavior and biology. They can identify potential hiding spots and breeding areas, which are often difficult for homeowners to detect. The National Pest Management Association notes that bed bugs typically hide in seams of mattresses, behind headboards, and in cracks of furniture, making their detection crucial for an effective eradication strategy.

Comprehensive inspections: Pest control services conduct thorough inspections to assess the extent of the infestation. They use specialized tools and techniques to find bed bugs and their eggs. The American Academy of Entomological Sciences emphasizes that early detection, facilitated by expert inspections, is key to successful management of bed bug populations.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Professional services often utilize an IPM approach, combining multiple strategies such as chemical treatments, physical removal, and preventive measures. This holistic strategy minimizes the chances of reinfestation and promotes long-term control. A study published in the Journal of Economic Entomology (Naylor & Boormans, 2019) highlights the effectiveness of combining chemical applications with preventive measures like mattress encasements.

Follow-up assessments: To ensure complete elimination, pest control companies provide follow-up treatments and assessments. They monitor the treated sites to confirm that the bed bugs have been eradicated and that no new infestations have occurred. Consistent monitoring is essential, as bed bugs can be resilient and may hide in inaccessible areas.

By leveraging these specialized treatments, expert knowledge, and comprehensive strategies, professional pest control services can significantly reduce bed bug populations, ultimately leading to a pest-free environment.

What DIY Solutions Can Be Employed for Treating Bed Bugs in Mattresses?

DIY solutions for treating bed bugs in mattresses include various methods that can help eliminate these pests effectively.

Vacuuming
Steaming
Using mattress encasements
Washing bedding and fabrics
Applying diatomaceous earth
Utilizing essential oils
Freezing or heat treatment
Implementing natural repellents

Each of these methods offers unique benefits and strategies for bed bug control, which can be implemented based on personal preferences and resource availability.

1. Vacuuming:
Vacuuming is an effective method for removing bed bugs. This method involves using a vacuum cleaner with a strong suction power to capture bugs, eggs, and debris from the mattress. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suggests thoroughly vacuuming all surfaces, including seams and crevices. It is crucial to dispose of the vacuum bag immediately to prevent any captured bugs from reinfesting the home.

2. Steaming:
Steaming effectively treats bed bugs due to the high heat involved. Steam cleaners can raise the temperature to levels that kill bed bugs on contact. The EPA states that steam should be applied slowly and moved systematically over cracks, crevices, and the entire mattress surface. This method is chemical-free, making it safe for the environment and for individuals with chemical sensitivities.

3. Using mattress encasements:
Mattress encasements are protective covers designed to trap bed bugs inside. These encasements are typically made of fabric that bed bugs cannot penetrate. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends using these encasements as part of a comprehensive strategy against bed bugs. This method not only prevents future infestations but also simplifies mattress cleaning.

4. Washing bedding and fabrics:
Washing bedding, pillowcases, and sheets in hot water is crucial in battling bed bugs. The heat from the washing cycle helps eliminate both bugs and eggs. According to the CDC, it’s recommended to dry these items on high heat for at least 30 minutes. This method is straightforward and can be easily integrated into regular laundry routines.

5. Applying diatomaceous earth:
Diatomaceous earth is a natural pest control product made from fossilized algae. It works by dehydrating bed bugs upon contact. Users should sprinkle this powder around the bed frame and mattress seams. The National Pesticide Information Retrieval System confirms its effectiveness, emphasizing safety as it consists of natural materials.

6. Utilizing essential oils:
Certain essential oils, such as tea tree oil and lavender, possess insect-repelling properties. Mixing these oils with water to create a spray can help deter bed bugs. The University of Tennessee advises that while essential oils may provide temporary relief, they are not a replacement for more direct treatments.

7. Freezing or heat treatment:
Both freezing and heat treatment are viable options for eradicating bed bugs. Freezing involves placing infested items in a freezer at 0°F for at least four days. Heat treatment can also be done by using a clothes dryer on high heat for items that can fit. The EPA elaborates that both methods kill bed bugs effectively at extreme temperatures.

8. Implementing natural repellents:
Natural repellents, such as vinegar or alcohol, can deter bed bugs. Spraying these solutions in affected areas may help keep bugs away. However, while they provide a short-term solution, they may not eliminate an infestation.

Using a combination of these DIY strategies may enhance effectiveness in treating bed bugs in mattresses. Regular monitoring and diligence contribute to long-term pest control.

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